Sustainable Forest Management Concepts

Sustainable Forest Management Concepts CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Background of SFM The sustainable forest management idea has been promoted for the past 20 years in government of Sabah since 1989 but there had not been any serious attempt to put such idea into any effective practice. To solve this challenge, the BN State Government ensured that SFM is implemented in all future forest related activities (SFD, 1998). Seven main elements of SFM which act as a reference framework for sustainable forest management are the extent of forest resources; forest biological diversity; forest health and vitality; productive functions of forest resources; protective functions of forest resources; socio-economic functions of forests; and the legal, policy and institutional framework (Sarre Sabogal, 2013). All the main stakeholders involved in forest management such as: forest managers, government, non-government organizations (NGOs) and other stakeholders need to understand what is SFM mean in order to work together to achieve the objectives (Higman, 2005). FAO had studied almost 80 cases of successful SFM implementation which shown the economic, social and environmental benefits that can be achieved under SFM (Sarre Sabogal, 2013). One of the efforts in practice of SFM is adopted and implemented principles of sound forest management at Deramakot Forest Reserve in Sandakan. The Deramakot Forest Reserve is FMU No.19. It had covered 55,083 hectares of mixed Dipterocarp forest in the east of Sabah (Mannan, Awang, Radin, Abai Lagan, 2002). In 1989, Malaysia- German Sustainable Forest Management Project was extended to Sabah and conducted in Deramakot Forest Reserves. The main goal of this project is to apply an ecologically and scientifically substantiated forest management system (Mapa, 2003). This project was undertaken by the Sabah Forestry Department with the help of forest resource management such as stock inventory, reduced impact logging (RIL), the skyline yarding system, forest rehabilitation and silviculture. Due to the successfu l of SFM at Deramakot, in September 1997, the state Government had an agreement with 10 organizations from private sector which became active partners of the Government to ensure that the SFM practice at Deramakot is extended to other commercial forest areas in Sabah (SFD, 1998). According to Li (2014), SFM aims to ensure that the goods and services derived from forest meet peoples’ needs meanwhile maintain their continued availability and contribution to long-term development. Over the last 10 years, China has made a great amount of achievements in the forest sector based on sustainable forest management concept. For example, China had ranked the sixth in the world in terms of forest stock volume, following by Brazil, Russia, Canada, the United States of America and Democratic Republic of Congo. All these examples show that sustainable forest management concept can help to maintain ecosystem balanced. 2.2 Forest Management Unit (FMU) FMU is clearly defined as forest area which managed to a set of explicit objectives based on a long term management plan. SFM is divided all the commercial forest areas into 27 blocks called Forest Management Units (FMUs). Each FMU is about 100,000 hectares wide (Toh Grace, 2006) and every unit will be managed by selected companies (Mapa, 2003). Currently, the level of the FMU in Peninsular Malaysia is an individual state; in Sabah the FMU area will cover by each Sustainable Forest Management License Agreement (SFMLA); while in Sarawak, the FMU is an individual concession area (Ng, Tong Lim, 2002). 2.3 Forest Management Plan (FMP) FMU divided their forest area into severe compartments. Each compartment has to prepare its own FMP. A FMP is a strategic plan that can provide an overview or description of the forest area and the basis activities for monitoring the forest (Armitage, 1998). FMP can also name as medium-term forest management planning which have a minimum duration of 10 years (Kleine Heuveldop, 1993). FMP translates the forest policy and prepared a well operational program for regulating forest activities. A FMP should include description of forest resource base, the management actions of the resources, review at the mid-point of the plan, review in the final year of the plan and the preparation of a new plan when the present plan expired (Armitage, 1998). FMP is an important strategy which conducted by FMU to well manage the community forest and bring benefits to local communities. 2.4 Community Forestry Community forestry is a village-level forestry activity which also can be defined as the participation of local communities in the planning, establishing, managing and harvesting of forest crops in a forest, so they can receive a major proportion of the socio-economic and ecological benefits from the forest (Nixon, Herbohn Harrison, 2001). The participation of local community is very critical to promote sustainable livelihoods and maintain forest resources (Murdiyarso, 2006). According to Metha (2002), both India and Nepal have a wide variety of forests. At that time, the use of forest is controlled by local community’s traditions. However due to massive loss of forest, the governments of India and Nepal began to take over the forest management authority in the late 1980s. This cause the local communities lost their stewardship. As a result, the community forest programs are implemented to give communities financial stake so they have an incentive to preserve the forest. In 1988, the master plan for Nepal’s program was adopted which states that the forest administration should allow people to have full control over the forest. 2.5 Issues during implementation of SFM concept According to Hickey (2004), during evaluating progress in monitoring and reporting information for SFM, some issues related to forestry such as: trade considerations, socio-economics conditions, forest resource characteristics and forest land ownership need to be considered. There are some challenges faced by local communities who living in the forests for manage the forests sustainability. For example, lack of available land especially those peoples with no legal claim to their native customary right (NCR) of land within forest reserves. These communities are limited from clearing additional land for their use (Toh Grace, 2006). Local communities argued about the forest boundary. They are restricted to enter into the forest to collect forest products (Lintangah, 2013). According to Lintangah (2013), another issue that faced by local communities during implementation of SFM concepts is the relationship with the FMU holders. Local communities have a low level of cooperation because they lack of consultation from FMU holders and some FMU holders begin their activities without permission of local communities. Besides that, lack of understanding about SFM concept among local communities also becomes an issue during implementation of SFM. SFM implementation also brought some impacts to locals such as lack of infrastructure development and maintenance for example road; lack of provision of job opportunities to the local communities and environmental pollution. Richards Yaron (2003) stated that the main problem or issues for sustainable forest management is the failures of market and policy which cause more profitable to cut down trees than to retain or manage them. All these challenges or issues can cause limitation of use right among local communities and occurred conflicts between local communities and forest managers (Duguma, Hager Gruber, 2009). To solve all these conflicts between stakeholders, SRM approaches should be conducted. It is important to conduct a study about the perceptions of communities towards SRM approaches which can help to solve the issues during SFM implementation. Based on Wang (2008), perception is the insight or intuition gained by perceiving. It can be defined as the sixth sense of human beings. Perception is an important cognitive function that can determine personality. 2.6 Stakeholder Relations Management (SRM) The stakeholder relations management approach refers as the framework for analyzing and evaluating a corporation’s relationship with external groups to achieve â€Å"win-win† situations that can benefit everyone (Lintangah, 2013). However, there are usually occurs winners and losers in a complex situations. As a result, stakeholder management approach is conducted for planning and implementing collaborative relationship to obtain win-win outcomes among stakeholders. SRM approach is a response to the growth and progress of corporations to understand how the corporation operates with their stakeholders (Lintangah, 2013). An effective SRM can well-managed the relationship among stakeholders for mutual benefits (Post, Preston Sachs, 2002). The six steps that focus in stakeholder management approach are first identify key stakeholders, describe their stakes in the organization, determine if those stakes are significant, evaluate the opportunities and challenges, determine t he organization’s responsibility to the stakeholder, and finally create relationship strategies (Shannon Thomas, 2015). One of the examples of SRM approaches is Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) which means â€Å"a voluntary management system used by the companies to incorporate a variety of social, environmental and economic pressures into their business operations and their interaction with their stakeholders† (Lintangah, 2013, p.36). Stakeholder management approaches can help to solve problems related with SFM implementation. Most of the stakeholders feel that the dialogue is one of the useful tools in dealing with their claims and interests besides media and technology. It can solve the conflicts among stakeholders through communicating, negotiating, contracting, managing relationships and motivating (Freeman, 2004). The SRM approaches that conducted under SFM at FMU level included community forestry, joint forest management, CSR programmes, inter-agencies involvement, and contract forestry that will promote and support the SFM implementation at the FMU level. According to Lintangah (2013), the supporting tools for SRM include the Forest Management Plan, Annual Work Plan, related government policies at the state and federal level, the Forest Enactment of 1968, and the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). 2.7 Sustainable Forest Management License Agreement (SFMLA) In September 1997, Sustainable Forest Management license Agreement (SFMLA) which is valid for 100 years is formed and replaced the timber license agreement (Toh Grace, 2006). On 10 September 1997, 10 companies had signed SFMLA with the government to show their cooperation in forest management. They were: Yayasan Sabah; Idris Hydraulic (Malaysia) Bhd; TSH Resources Bhd; Sapulut Forest Development Sdn Bhd; Bugaya Forest Sdn Bhd; The North Borneo Timber Corporation Berhad; Modern Innovation Realty Sdn Bhd; Anika Desiran Sdn Bhd; Bornion Timber Sdn Bhd and Timberwell Bhd (SFD, 1998). SFMLA holders are responsible for forest planning, forest inventories, preparation of forest management plans, implementation of the SFM, the establishment and maintenance of infrastructure, the security and protection of the FMU area, the protection and conservation of the unique environment within the SFMLA area, support financial of all the expenses and the accommodation of local communities’ interests (Lintangah, 2013). Under SFMLA, licence holders have to implement community forestry (CF) projects within their respective FMUs. All the companies have to submit annual work plans and harvest plans for each logging plots based on reduced-impact logging systems. All the management and operational plans, especially monitoring the activities of licence holders had to approve by Forestry Department (Toh Grace, 2006).

Interventions to Reduce Risk of Criminal Behaviour

Interventions to Reduce Risk of Criminal Behaviour Evaluate the evidence base for and against early intervention in the lives of children and families to forestall the development of Criminal behaviour. Methods of early Intervention After decades of rigorous study in the United States and across the Western world, a great deal is known about the early risk factors for offending. High impulsiveness, low attainment, criminal parents, parental conflict, and growing up in a deprived, high-crime neighbourhood are among the most important factors. ‘It is the accumulation of risk factors that characterises this much smaller groups persistent extreme violence.’[1] There is also a growing body of high quality scientific evidence on the effectiveness of early prevention programs designed to prevent children from embarking on a life of crime. Preschool intellectual enrichment, child skills training, parent management training, and home visiting programs are among the most effective early prevention programs. [2] Friedrich Losel, director of the Institute of Criminology at the University of Cambridge has researched that Conduct problems often start by the age of five and about 40 per cent go on to become more s erious and persistent as the child gets older. This is why its important to develop and implement measures to stop it relatively early.[3] Therefore, assessing the risk factor behaviour before offending occurs or become persistent is imperative. The Youth Survey suggests that the most common age for first time offending is between the age of 11-12 for mainstream pupils and 10-11 for those that have been excluded. If someone has not committed an offence by the age of 14 they will generally not do so. An early onset of delinquency prior to age 13 years increases the risk of later serious, violent, and chronic offending by a factor of 2–3. Also child delinquents, compared to juveniles who start offending at a later age, tend to have longer delinquent careers.[4] Rolf Loeber and David P Farrington advance that the protective factors in the individual, family, peer group, school, and neighbourhood affect the development of delinquency.[5] The risk factors that have been well researched are varied. ‘There is no easy link of cause and effect between the factors associated with youth crime and actual offending.’[6] The risk factors may be counteracted by positive influences such as good parenting. Notable risk factors include, being male; being brought up by a criminal parent or parents; living in a family with multiple problems; experiencing poor parenting and lack of supervision; poor discipline in the family and at school; playing truant or being excluded from school; associating with delinquent friends; and having siblings who offend. Research has illustrated that ‘two important influences are persistent school truancy and associating with offenders, but the single most important factor in explaining criminality is the quality of a young persons home life, including parental supervision.’ [7] The National Public Health Service for Wales issued an en evidence briefing so as to discuss interventions surrounding crime and the fear of crime in June 2005. The paper is as a result of studies relating to adult and juvenile offenders. As well as protecting against future criminal activity early intervention arguably promotes health. Building healthy public policy, creating supportive environments, strengthening community action, developing personal skills and re structuring health services are thought to help prevent against crime also.[8] The family factor of risk concerns ideals such as poor parenting, family history of offending and family conflict. For families, Behavioural Parent Training for anti social child behaviour acts as an effective strategy to modify child anti social behaviour and improve parental skills. Parenting programmes provide parents with an opportunity to improve their skills in dealing with the behaviour that puts their child at risk of offending. They provide parents/carers with one-to-one advice as well as practical support in handling the behaviour of their child, setting appropriate boundaries and improving communication. Pre school children who fall within one or more of the risk categories should also be placed into day care, establishing a supportive environment for both the child and the parent. The outcome of this method of intervention appears to be increased employment, lower teenage pregnancy rates, higher social class status and decreased criminal behaviour in intervention populati on. Trials have established some weaknesses, but the potential population effective impact is very broad. To prevent youth violence specifically, it has been researched that interventions applied between the prenatal period and the age of six appear to be most effective. Community based programmes that target high risk behaviour is seen as beneficial. Family and parenting intervention for conduct disorders and delinquency for those aged between 10 and 17 years also have beneficial effects in decreasing criminal activity. High quality pre school supervision has been seen to decrease arrests and arrests specifically for drug dealing. Time spent on probation is also decreased in this way. It is a cost effective method of intervention ad can be implemented within pre school education and programmes within day care and nursery.[9] The School factor of risk flags up cases of low achievement, lack of attendance, lack of commitment, aggressive behaviour and bullying. Safer school’s partnerships provide a much focused approach to address the high level of crime and antisocial behaviour committed in and around schools in some areas – crime committed by and against children and young people. There are now 370 police officers based in selected schools in areas with high levels of street crime. This is a joint initiative between the Department for Education and Skills the Youth Justice Board and the Association of Chief Police Officers which aims to reduce criminality, antisocial behaviour and criminality.[10] Academic and vocational interventions in order to educate those with a lesser capability than others are seen to be effective in reducing recidivism. Behavioural and skill orientated classes for those showing risk are among the most successful interventions to reduce crime and recidivism. To preven t offending, the Youth Justice Board set up schemes such as the Youth Inclusion programme. Under this programme young people who are engaged in crime or at risk of offending are identified by youth offending teams and the programme gives young people somewhere safe to go where they can learn new skills, take part in activities with others and get help with their education and careers guidance. Youth Inclusion and Support Panels aim to prevent antisocial behaviour and offending by 8 to 13-year-olds who are considered to be at high risk of offending. Panels are made up of a number of representatives of different agencies such as social services and health. The main emphasis of a panels work is to ensure that children and their families, at the earliest possible opportunity, can access mainstream public services. [11] The community factor of risk revolves around community disorganisation, neglect and community tolerance of crime and drugs. The individual, personality factor of risk includes early problematic behaviours surrounding drugs and alcohol and the notion of criminally active friends. [12] Positive Activities for Young People provides a broad range of constructive activities for 8 to 19-year-olds at risk of social exclusion. It builds on the success of previous school holiday programmes such as the Youth Justice Board’s Splash and Connexions’ Summer Plus. The programme aims to reduce crime and to ensure that young people return to education, have opportunities to engage in new and constructive activities, and can mix with others from different backgrounds. This cross-government initiative aims to develop young people’s interests, talents and education, and engage them in community activities so they are less likely to commit crime. Activities based on arts, sport and c ulture take place both during the school holidays and out of school hours throughout the year. Positive Futures is a national sports-based social inclusion programme aimed at marginalised 10 to 19-year-olds in the most deprived areas. By engaging these young people in sport and other activities, Positive Futures aims to build relationships between responsible adults and young people based on mutual trust and respect, in order to create new opportunities for alternative lifestyles.[13] One method which many may overlook is the punishment of offenders once they have offended at whatever age. If a young person is convicted of an offence, there are a number of community and custodial sentences. The community sentences currently available include, Community Rehabilitation and Punishment Order, Supervision Order, Action Plan Order Attendance Sentence Order, Referral Order, Reparation Order, Fine, Conditional Discharge and Absolute Discharge. Young people can also be given an Intensive Supervision and Surveillance Programme as part of an order. ISSP is the most rigorous non-custodial intervention available for young offenders. It combines high levels of community-based surveillance with a comprehensive and sustained focus on tackling the factors that contribute to the young persons offending behaviour. The programme targets the most active repeat young offenders, and those who commit the most serious crimes.[14]Punishment does afford deterrent effects but it is no clear how much in cases of increased severity. As this is not always cost effective, this is one reason why possible alternatives should be considered Although some of the methods I have just discussed are effective, the effects may be limited. For example, Behavioural Parent Training for anti social behaviour in children is a short term procedure and for long term sustainability it will require other methods to supplement the training. Changes within the environment and the community are also seen as a potential short term effect because it is proven that changes do reduce criminal activity and fear of crime but there is little information on whether this has been a long term deterrent. Cognitive behavioural multidimensional programmes to prevent youth violence can be effective but the main area of weakness within youth crime prevention is that the approaches for youth crime have not been well evaluated. Controlled studies are needed regarding diversion programmes, counselling and therapy in order to see their preventative quality. Family and group treatment has also worked in the short term but seems to decrease dramatically as t ime passes. If communities can build home visiting programmes to prevent crime, that are comprehensive, continuous and family focussed these are most likely to succeed long term. This is dependant on other services on offer in the community and the scope of the programmes facilitated. Physiological and social skill training of children is seen to prevent adolescent aggression but not for the duration. All those involved with a child’s upbringing are required to show them what is right and what is wrong and the consequences of their behaviour. This is seen as effective so as not to cause inadvertent damage. The social skill training for children has prevented criminal behaviour and aggression but the success of the effectiveness is different in different settings and for different personalities. There are a variety of ineffective methods of intervention. Namely, community crime prevention programmes have insufficient evidence to state that such interventions can alter the behaviour of individuals who do not see crime as wrong. Even juvenile offender programmes have come under scrutiny due to the abandonment of recreational programmes, guided intervention, social case work and detached worked programmes as they are seen as ineffective. There is a wide variability in the reported effects and so even if more behavioural and skilled orientated programmes were introduced it would need to be done area by area. Mentoring pairs a volunteer adult with a young person at risk of offending. The adults role is to motivate and support the young person on the scheme through a sustained relationship over an extended period of time. Youth Offending Teams have been set up to work with young offenders and young people at risk of offending. These are multi-agency teams made up of representative s from social services, police, health, housing, police, probation, education and dug and alcohol workers and this will be set up in every local authority area However, Mentoring and peer counselling are see to be less effective in order to prevent youth violence from an early age. Intensive casework to prevent youth crime has evidence that argues against this approach as more often than not it has had negative effects. The review conducted by the Wider Determinants Inequalities (2005) Interventions: Crime and Fear of Crime, found that there was little evidence of effectiveness for any intervention and the evidence that does exist is described as ‘slight, inconsistent and of questionable reliability.’[15] A Summary and critical commentary on history of early intervention attempts in the UK and it’s continual development. In the 1990’s there was a huge increase in the number of children engaging in criminal activity and caught up in the youth justice system. The labour party wanted to reform the youth justice system in 1997 to stop the increase. The focus was on parental responsibility and new parental responsibility orders in order to ‘force parents face up to their responsibility for their childrens misbehaviour.’[16] Labour introduced the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 and the Youth Justice Board was set up to drive the reforms forwards. ’The aim of the YJB is to prevent offending among under-18s and it delivers this by setting standards and monitoring performance, promoting good practice and diverting young people away from crime through early identification and prevention programmes.’[17]The act implemented proposals such as the Child safety order, designed to protect children under ten who are at risk of becoming involved in crime or who have already started to beh ave in an anti-social or criminal manner. The local authority can require a child to be at home for a number of evenings a week, stay away from certain people and prohibit conduct such as truancy.[18] Also, the local child curfew for those under ten, is proposed to protect children, to prevent neighborhood and to promote supervision of young children, unsupervised late at night. [19] Schemes such as those outlined above have provided an effective immediate method of intervention. The Children Act 2004 also placed much emphasis on joined-up working and early intervention. It aimed to divert young people away from crime and ensure parents are responsible for their child’s behaviour. The Government then planned a Draft Bill, building on the responses to the September 2003 consultation ‘Youth Justice: The Next Steps.’[20]It introduced better sentencing of juveniles with a sharper focus on preventing offending and simplification of sentences. Rolf Loeber and David P Farrington were in agreement with the ‘preventive and remedial interventions in the juvenile justice system, families, peer groups, schools, and neighbourhoods, and makes a case for improvement in the integration of services for child delinquents.’ [21]The premise of action by those working within juvenile justice, mental health and child welfare has been supported alongside policy recommendations. The youth crime strategy looked at targeting risk factors and those most at risk. The ‘Every Child Matters’ and ‘Children’s Bill’ afforded structural reform to children’s activities within the early years.[22] The joint Home Office and youth justice board issued guidance alongside this with the supporting aim to prevent children and young people being involved in criminality in the first place.[23] Through identifying early those most at risk and commencing intensive target programmes they hoped to decrease the number of children that turned to criminal activity. Research by the Home Office has shown that those most at risk of offending have not entered into criminality where the have participated in preventative programmes. The lack of successful implementation of these programmes has meant that prevention of very young children growing up and turning to crime is inadequate. The early years influence children greatly and the age at which children begin to offend the more likely they are to continue offending.[24] Presently, measures tackling prevention of children becoming involved in criminal and anti social behavior are insufficient. The Government should not and will not dictate how children should be raised or the running of a family home, but parents hold the primary responsibility for giving children the love and care they need, ensuring their welfare and security and teaching them right from wrong. Intervention methods, still fail to adequately address the parent, child and criminal activity connection. When discussing the potential of continual development regarding early intervention, the thesis of Friedrich Losel, considers it necessary to look at three categories of programme to act as a means of early intervention. Firstly, there is Universal Prevention which requires social services to be in contact with all families in the UK. This would also act as a technique for access where the family requires a more intensive and interactive service. The obvious problems with this theory are that although thorough and highly stringent, social service may not have the resources funding or manpower to carry out this proposal as well as it should be. Secondly, there could be Selective Prevention where social services focus on families at risk, such as young, single mothers and those who already have crime within their families. This is close to the system that the government, police and local authorities agree with but it is also close to the system that we have at the moment which is insuf ficient. The problem is whether the option typecasts people too much and does not look at the bigger picture or new risks surfacing. Thirdly is the theory of Indicated Prevention, where social services make a clear assessment of the childs development when they have already shown some aggressive behaviour, such as fighting, disobeying parents, or fire setting. If the child shows these behaviours in more than one social context, such as at school and at home, then this is an early indicator, says Losel. The problem is that these families often think this is normal which is why professionals have an important warning function because they are more neutral in recognising the problem.’[25] Again this is also close to the current system, and although more resource friendly, it still waits until there has been an affirmative action before any form of intervention occurs. This is the deficiency with the system at present. From these three ideals, we are no closer to providing a unif ormed means of intervention unless all three are used and applied on a case by case basis. There is consensus with Losel in that research has provided a relatively sound knowledge of risk factors but there are a number of programmes requiring better evaluation about which ones are successful in the long-term. There are only a few specialist services available and because of the scarce specialist provision at an early age, such as residential school placements, foster care, family placements, therapeutic input, assessments or forensic advice, professionals have been unable to respond to the behaviour of the children before it gets so serious in adolescence. It is then for the already overworked, under funded and under staffed Social Services who end up trying to sort the problem. The risk factors are known but it can be ‘difficult to distinguish which child will go on to be extremely dangerous. So it can be difficult to get funding for specialist resources] on the basis that you are predicting something that hasnt happened yet.[26] It is argued that early intervention is the key rather than the present strategy where it is only when a child does something as extraordinary or dangerous as this that they get a response. Further,† the inability to respond and prioritise some cases over others, early on, means we end up with these extreme behaviours. [27] Diversities, contradictions and debates in public discourses of early childhood convey only a fraction of the challenge, when set in context of (generally unarticulated) diversities in beliefs, ideas and experiences that shape individual children’s lives. Any close study of young children reveals the complexity of the worlds they inhabit, the very different pressures on parents, caregivers and others on whom their wellbeing depends. Starting points for policy development are very different where early childhood is dominated by extreme poverty, inequality or discrimination, or by ethnic struggle, civil or cross-national conflict, or by malnutrition, preventable diseases or HIV/Aids, by family or community breakdown and forced migration, or by weak or corrupt infrastructures of care and education, health and social support. Asking about young children’s perspective on their own unique early childhood is arguably the most crucial starting point for policy and practice. It is argued that none of the strategies implemented or proposed will magically work unless the general problems are made right first and ‘every child needs consistency of care and education before you can give them anything more specialist.[28] Upon this, programmes should be structured well and detail casework for each individual case. Staff should be trained, supervised and be representative of the workload in order to match demand. The remedy requires ‘adequate endurance and intensity this is not quick fix.’[29]The longer it takes to intervene, the more intensive the problems become and the more it costs to deal with. Estimated costs include special pre-school, school, intensive foster care, residential care, psychiatry, social services, health services, involvement with criminal justice and damages to others. In conclusion, within the climate of today, everyone appears in agreement that although it is never too late to turn a child’s life around, As they reach adolescence the probability of changing the course of their life gets less and less.[30] Although I am in agreement with early intervention, in order to progress development successfully, an integrated policy is required so that a trial and error strategy can be avoided. There seems to be no shame in admitting that we ‘need some indicators to show what kind of programme is needed for what kind of family at what time.[31] Bibliography Articles Submission from the Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) (2005) Every Child Matters- Education and Skills Select Committee. Wider Determinants Inequalities (2005) Interventions: Crime and Fear of Crime. Lane B, (2005) Youth Crime Prevention- An Overview. Home Office Publications. Cambridge University Press, (2000) Young children who commit Crime, Cambridge University Press Online. Boyd, J (2007) Children and crime: early intervention is the key. Government Publication: (1997) No More Excuses: A new approach to tackling youth crime in England and Wales. Jerrom, C (2007) Youth Justice: The Bigger Picture on the youth justice system. Jenny Boyd, Renuka Jeyarajah-Dent and Vivian Hill talk to Natalie Valios (2007) Children and crime: early intervention is the key. P.1 Text Books Feldman, M.A (2003) Early Intervention- The essential readings. Blackwell Publishing. Farrington, D.P Welsh, B.C (2006) Saving Children from a life of Crime – Early risk factors and effective interventions. Oxford University Press. Burke, R.H (2003) An introduction to Criminological Theory. Willan Publishing. Galvin, K.M Byland, C.L Brummel, B.J (2003) Family Communication (6th Ed). Person Publishing. Lemert, C (2002) Introduction to Sociological life (2nd Ed). Rowman Littlefield Publishing. Maguire, M Morgan,R Reiner, R (2002) Handbook of Criminology (3rd Ed). Oxford Publishing. Statutes Crime and Disorder Act 1998 Children Act 2004 Draft Bill building on responses to the September 2003 consultation ‘Youth Justice. Websites www.communitycare.co.uk www.publications.parliament.uk www.Homeoffice.co.uk Top of Form 1 Footnotes [1] Jenny Boyd, Renuka Jeyarajah-Dent and Vivian Hill talk to Natalie Valios (2007) Children and crime: early intervention is the key. P.1 [2] Saving Children from a Life of Crime Early Risk Factors and Effective Interventions David P. Farrington and Brandon C. Welsh October 2007 [3] Ibid., P.2 [4] Young children who commit crime: Epidemiology, developmental origins, risk factors, early interventions, and policy implications :Development and Psychopathology (2000), 12: 737-762 Cambridge University Press doi:10.1017/S0954579400004107Published online by Cambridge University Press 16Jan2001 [5] Rolf Loeber David P. Farrington (2000) Child Delinquents: Development, Intervention, and Service Needs. [6] Government Publication (1997) No More Excuses: A new approach to tackling youth crime in England and Wales [7] Ibid., [8] Wider Determinants Inequalities (2005) Interventions: Crime and Fear of Crime. See: Ottawa charter, Canada (1986), In relation to the relationship between health and early intervention. [9] For a more informed discussion see: Wider Determinants Inequalities (2005) Interventions: Crime and Fear of Crime. [10] Submission from the Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) (2005) Every Child Matters- Education and Skills Select Committee. Ch.2 [11] Ch.4.Ibid. [12] Boyd, J (2007) Children and crime: early intervention is the key. [13] Submission from the Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) (2005) Every Child Matters- Education and Skills Select Committee. Ch.5. [14] Ch.5 Ibid [15] Wider Determinants Inequalities (2005) Interventions: Crime and Fear of Crime. [16] Government Publication (1997) No More Excuses: A new approach to tackling youth crime in England and Wales [17] Jerrom, C (2007) Youth Justice: The Bigger Picture on the youth justice system.P.2 [18] If the requirements of an order are not complied with, it will be open to the local authority to commence care proceedings under Section 31(1) (a) of the Children Act 1989. [19] Where there is non compliance and no responsible adult present, the police might use powers already available to them under section 46 of the Children Act 1989 to remove the child to other suitable accommodation. [20] Lane B, (2005) Youth Crime Prevention- An Overview. Home Office Publications. [21] Rolf Loeber David P. Farrington (2000) Child Delinquents: Development, Intervention, and Service Needs. [22] Both published 2003. [23] Lane B, (2005) Youth Crime Prevention- An Overview. Home Office Publications. [24] Jerrom, C (2007) Youth Justice: The Bigger Picture on the youth justice system. [25] Jenny Boyd, Renuka Jeyarajah-Dent and Vivian Hill talk to Natalie Valios (2007) Children and crime: early intervention is the key. P.3 [26] Ibid. Vivian Hill discusses the problems she faces as a consultant educational psychologist at the institute of education, university of London.P.4 [27] Ibid. [28] Ibid. Jeyarajah-Dent discusses. P5 [29] Ibid. [30]Friedrich Losel Ibid. [31]Friedrich Losel Ibid.

Computer Crimes of Today :: essays research papers fc

Computer Crimes on the Internet Thesis: Emerging with the Internet, a group of elite cyber-surfers have turned into todayà ­s computer hackers. Software piracy is a major crime on the Net. $7.5 billion of American Software is stolen each year. Industrial Espionage is gaining access to remote sites illegally. Stealing of information from corporate sites is extremely illegal. Password Sniffers are used to get someoneà ­s password. IP spoofers changes your identity. Many things can be stolen from companies. III. Email hacking is common. Mail bombs are thousands of messages send to a single address. Email forgery can cause people reputations to get ruined. Anonymous Email is illegal. Fraud is very common. Pyramid schemes are nothing but a scam. Credit card fraud is a half billion dollar a year scam. Computer viruses are destructive to computers. Computer viruses can be attached to Email messages. 99% of all computer viruses are detectable. Computer Crimes on the Internet Its the 90à ­s, the dawn of the computer age. With technology changing and evolving everyday, it may seem hard not to slip behind in this ever changing world. The Information Super-Highway has been following computers throughout the past few years. Along with the Internet, an emerging group of elite cyber-surfers have turned into todayà ­s computer hackers. Most people donà ­t know about them, most people donà ­t know they exist, but they are out there, lurking in the shadows, waiting for there next victim. It can be a scary world out there (Welcome to the Internet). In reality it is not nearly as bad as it sounds, and chances are it wonà ­t happen to you.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are many fields of hacking on the Internet. The most popular type of hacking is software piracy. à ¬According to estimates by the US Software Piracy Association, as much as $7.5 billion of American software may be illegally copied and distributed annually worldwideà ®(Ferrell13). Hackers à ¬pirateà ® software merely by uploading software bought in a store to the Internet. Uploading is send information from point A(client) to point B(host); downloading is the opposite. Once it is uploaded to the Internet, people all over the world have access to it. From there, hackers trade and distribute the software, which in hacker jargon is warez.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Industrial Espionage is another main concern on the Internet. Most recently, the FBIà ­s World Wide Web page hacked and turned into a racial hate page. Anyone can access files from a WWW page, but changing them is very hard. That is why most hackers donà ­t even bother with it. CNET stated à ¬This Web site should have been among the safest and most secure in the world, yet late in 1996, it got hacked.

Essay --

Yejung Lee Ms. Samson Biology Honors 13 December 2013 Thyroid Cancer Thyroid cancer is an abnormal and malignant cell growth in the thyroid gland (see figure 1). The wellbeing of a person’s thyroid gland is extremely important, as this organ secretes hormones and other chemicals that help a person maintain homeostasis, more specifically the weight, blood pressure, heart rate, and internal body temperature (Bethesda, National Cancer Institute). According to the Mayo Clinic, although it is not yet clear to researchers what exactly causes thyroid cancer, what medical scientists do know is why it occurs. One type of thyroid cancer that can be genetic is medullary thyroid cancer. This type of cancer is genetic because it is linked with a variety of risk factors that could lead up to cancer, such as gender, age, radiation exposure, hereditary conditions, and family history (â€Å"What Are the Risk Factors for Thyroid Cancer?†). A major specific cause of thyroid diseases and cancers is insufficient iodine intake. Thyroid cancer is less common in the United States, than places that do not include as much iodine in the diet because in the United States, iodine is often added to many foods and consumption products. An environmental factor that is associated with thyroid cancer is exposure to radiation. One major example of this is the radiation from the Chernobyl incident; many people were affected by the radiation and many people, especially children, developed thyroid cancer (â€Å"What Are the Risk Factors for Thyroid Cancer?†). The reasons why are unclear, but there is a sharp distinction between male and female thyroid cancer rates - females tend to develop the cancer more by nearly three times as often (â€Å"What Are the Risk Factors for Thyroid... ..., while a cell undergoes cell cycle, when a cell comes in contact with another cell, it stops reproducing. However, cancer cells continue to duplicate repeatedly until there is a mass of cells or a tumor to form (see figure 9). Lastly, in cell division when there is a mutation or abnormality in the DNA, a normal cell stops dividing. However, a cancerous cell will continue to duplicate and form mutations (â€Å"Cell Biology and Cancer†). Also, cancer cells are harmful because they grow and duplicate with complete disregard to the functions and limitations of the body (see figure 10). Also, cancerous cells have the ability to spread through metastasis throughout parts of the body through the bloodstream. In terms of similar behavior to that of normal cells, cancerous cells also duplicate, but at a very different rate ("Cancer Cells vs. Normal Cells: What's Different?"). â€Æ'

Daniel Deronda Essay -- Essays Papers

Daniel Deronda Daniel Deronda, the final novel published by George Eliot, was also her most controversial. Most of Eliot’s prior novels dealt largely with provincial English life but in her final novel Eliot introduced a storyline for which she was both praised and disparaged. The novel deals not only with the coming of age of Gwendolyn Harleth, a young English woman, but also with Daniel Deronda’s discovery of his Jewish identity. Through characters like Mirah and Mordecai Cohen, Eliot depicts Jewish cultural identity in the Victorian period. Reaction to Daniel Deronda exposes the deeply embedded anti-semitism of the period. The story follows the tow main characters over the course of several years as they struggle with their own self discovery. The novel’s primary female character, Gwendolyn, is an essentially aloof figure that resists any genuine emotional connection. She enters into a union with Grandcourt in hopes of advancing herself socially but the resulting marriage is disastrous. Deronda, after saving young Mirah from suicide, is drawn into a Judaic community. Deronda eventually discovers his Jewish heritage and marries Mirah. The two move to Palestine in hopes of helping to establish a Jewish homeland there. Eliot was not ignorant of the risks she ran in writing a novel that placed a minority culture at its center. In a letter to Harriet Beecher Stowe Eliot described her aims in writing Daniel Deronda this way: There is nothing I should care more to do, if it Were possible than to rouse the imagination of Men and women to a vision of human claims in Those races of their fellow men who diff... ... a November 1876 letter to John Blackwood: This is what I wanted to do- to widen the English vision a little in that direction and let in a little conscience and refinement. I expected to excite more resistance of feeling than I have seen the signs of, but I did what I chose to do- not so well as I should have like to do it, but as well as I could.(qtd. in Haight, 304) Works Cited Ashton, Rosemary. George Eliot; A Life. New York: Penguin, 1996. Cave,Terence. Introduction. Daniel Deronda. By George Eliot. London: Penguin,1995. ix-xxxiii. Haight, Gordon. Ed. The George Eliot Letters Volume VI. London:Yale Univ.Press, 1955. Karl, Frederick R. George Eliot; Voice of a Century. New York: Norton & Co., 1995.

Reviewing Films Depicting Supremacy of Artificial Intelligence Essay

There is without a shadow of a doubt that we are now living in a time when there is almost nothing we cannot accomplish. The outbreak of high technology all around the world is soaring, and day by day, improvements on what is already highly intelligent devices are being developed. From computers, to cellular phones, to MP3 players, everything has been made accesible to man. Because of this technology, man can bask in his creations and marvel at the genius that he has invented through the years. Half a decade ago, today’s technology wouldn’t have even been deemed as possible. Yesteryear’s most advanced technological developers probably wouldn’t have even dreamed of the possibilities of what we now have today. But such is the development of the human mind: our intelligence is further developing and increasing, being able to establish new concepts and ideas to be used for our own benefits. Indeed, with this highly advanced technology, we are further establishing ourselves as the dominant species of the planet. For us, we are in charge of our own destinies, and no species of another kind can tell us otherwise. But one is lead to ponder about the marvels of our own creations. What if the articifial intelligence we created were able to evolve themselves? What if these computers suddenly became self-aware, and starts acknowledging its own existence? It is true that we are the one who controls the technology, but what if the technology were able to control itself? If it became self-aware, what if, all of a sudden, it starts to refuse to follow its human creators? And if not the computers themselves, what if one person controlling these technologies started using them for their own ulterior motives? With our main defenses relying on technological advances, what if these advances were suddenly used against us? Would the humans still be able to lay its claim as the rulers of the earth when a something else establishes themselves as more intelligent and dominant? Such is the fear that some of us have: the fear of having our own technology turned against us. We fear the idea that perhaps someday, these computers that we have in our homes would become intelligent enough to start recognizing its own existence. In the early nineties, technophobia became rampant among the adults, although this fear was largely based on the misconceptions on computers being too overly complicated. Still, for some people, the advancements in technology is reason for them to be cautious about our own inventions. Creating Technopobia in Movies Since early in the 1980s, there have been a string of movies depicting highly advanced technology being used woefully and without any regard towards others. These movies often show state-of-the-art gadgets or creations, which are used against the protagonists to further cause ruin and devastation. Oftentimes these gadgets are used for the wrong reasons, and with its infinite possibilities, it creates the fear that maybe what we have created may not be totally beneficial to us, and could possibly create more harm than help in the long run. Perhaps the most popular among the movies that came out during the eighties that depicted this theme was the 1984 movie Terminator, starring Arnold Schwarzenegger as a human cyborg sent back in time. In the future, Skynet, a computer system fights a losing war against the humans who built it, and who it nearly exterminated. Just before being destroyed, Skynet sends a Terminator back in time to kill Sarah, the mother to be of John Connor, the Leader of the human resistance. The terminator can pass for human, is nearly indestructible, and has only one mission: killing Sarah Connor. One soldier is sent back to protect her from the killing machine. He must find Sarah before the Terminator can carry out it’s mission (MGM. com). This movie portrays Skynet as a super computer, one that is capable to making decisions for itself. The super computer becomes self-aware, and recognizes the human race as a threat to its existence. It therefore wages a war against all of mankind, which almost led to the anniliation of the entire planet. In 1998, the movie ‘Enemy of the State’ provided a different insight on abusing highly advanced technology. Robert Dean, the main character of the story, is just a successful and gutsy labor lawyer when he runs into an old college friend who was a big hurry. Unknown to him, that friend secretly drops a disc and viewer containing footage of a political assassination overseen by the senior advisor to the National Security Agency. Unfortunately, that politician soon learns what Dean has in his possession and secretly uses the vast resources of the NSA to find, investigate and stop him before he goes public. Soon, Dean finds himself on the run, with his assests frozen, his loved ones watched and actively hunted by NSA agents using all the survellience technology they have available. Not knowing what is going, Dean must stay one step ahead while trying to figure out the cause of this mess (Yahoo! Movies). This movie dwells on the idea of government surveillance and the invasion of our personal privacy by the government. We see from the movie that these technological advances could be easily used against us, and just as it could make our lives easier, it could also make it extremely difficult. We also find that if technology were to be used the wrong way, then those in power could have a commanding control over our very lives. Another movie that depicted computers going against humans was the highly acclaimed ‘The Matrix’. Thomas A. Anderson is a man living two lives: by day he is an average computer programmer and by night a malevolent hacker known as Neo. Neo has always questioned his reality but the truth is far beyond his imagination. Neo finds himself targeted by the police when he is contacted by Morpheus, a legendary computer hacker branded a terrorist by the government. Morpheus awakens Neo to the real world, a ravaged wasteland where most of humanity have been captured by a race of machines which live off of their body heat and imprison their minds within an artificial reality known as the Matrix. As a rebel against the machines, Neo must return to the Matrix and confront the agents, super powerful computer programs devoted to snuffing out Neo and the entire human rebellion (Whatisthematrix. com). The movie is almost identical to the concept of the Terminator, in which there is a computer mind that becomes self-aware of its own existence. Knowing that it has the power of technology, it sees the human race as disposable, and decides to take over and control the entire world. When Neo met Morpheus, he was awakened to the fact that they were being used by the computer systems as mere batteries to continue sustaining their own power. And it was up to them to reawaken the rest of the world from this nightmare that is the Matrix. The Fear of Control What these three films had in common was theme of technology taking over the human lives. The films shared similar highly advanced technology that in one way was very helpful, but at the other end caused problems that were catastrophic. This is what we are afraid of; that maybe perhaps at some point, our own creations would backfire on us and cause a lot of harm towards society, and it would perhaps be unstoppable when it happens. Perhaps what motivates the persistence of these kinds of themes is the fact that we all know that this fantasy that they try to present could and might become possible in the future. Fifty or so years ago, our technology today wasn’t even thought of as possible. A lot of things are being developed today that our predescessors couldn’t have possibly dreamed of back in the day. Nowadays, the sky is the limit. The human race is making every dream come to life, developing newer and better technology every single day. So deep inside, we know that this threat of computers taking over is not a long shot. We see that perhaps someday, artificial intelligence would become this advanced as to be self-aware. And if this happens, what’s gonna stop them from taking over the world and eliminating the human race? In terms of humans going against fellow humans using technology, we ourselves could be comparable to this technology. Donna Haraway mentions how we are like the cyborgs, which are both part machine and part organism. She further states: In short, we are cyborgs. The cyborg is our ontology; it gives us our politics. The cyborg is a condensed image of both imagination and material reality, the two joined centres structuring any possibility of historical transformation. In the traditions of â€Å"Western† science and politics—the tradition of racist, male- dominant capitalism; the tradition of progress; the tradition of the appropriation of nature as resource for the productions of culture; the tradition of reproduction of the self from the reflections of the other—the relation between organism and machine has been a border war (Harraway, 516). With the peer-to-perr capabilities of networked computer communication today, it is likely to have a major impact on both the film and music business. Depending on how this technology is used, it could have either a postive or negative effect on these industries. Everything could be made easier with technology, films and music could be produced with relative ease, and everything to be made more accesible. On the other hand, changing the sytems could mean doing things a lot different, which could cause a chain reaction among those who are involved. Business could be done more efficiently, but it could leave people out of jobs. Human work might be replaced by much more efficient computers doing their jobs, and that could have an effect on the economy of the country. Looking back, technology has certainly come along way since back in the old days, when all of this conveniences didn’t exist. It is easy to picture people being intimidated by these advancements, due to its infinite potential. Depending on how it is used, it could be very good for all of us, or it could be catastrophic to all. Only time will tell whether these technological improvements would come back to haunt us in the long run. Works Cited Enemy of the State. Yahoo! Movies. Retrieved 3 June 2008 from http://movies. yahoo. com/shop? d=hv&cf=info&id=1800021531 Haraway, Donna. â€Å"A Cyborg Manifesto. † The New Media Reader (1985). pp. 515-541. The Matrix Trilogy. Whatisthematrix. com. Retrieved 3 June 2008 from http://whatisthematrix. warnerbros. com/ The Terminator. MGM. com. Retrieved 3 June 2008 from http://www. mgm. com/title_title. php? title_star=TERMINAT

Ielts vs Toefl

Many students around the world look forward for studying in the United State of America. They are required to pass any English as A Second Language exam. The two most popular exams for international students are the TOEFL-IBT and the IELTS. Many students get confused which exam is easier for them. In fact, it depends on the student to decide which is the easiest for him or her. There are many reasons to consider whether to choose taking the IELTS or the TOEFL-IBT. One of the biggest differences between these exams is in the speaking section.In the TOEFL-IPT, students use computers to take the exam. The speaking section on the TOEFL-IBT requires listening to six conversations and lectures, then students must talk about the conversations or the lectures that they heard for one minutes each. In the IELTS, students do not use computers and do not listen to any conversation or lecture. They speak with examiners instead of computers. The examiners ask some general and specific questions th en they must answer these questions. Many students say that the IELTS is easier than the TOEFL-IBT in the speaking section because it is more reliable.For example, in the TOEFL-IBT, some students may get lectures about subjects that they are not familiar with such as physics and chemistry. Many students say it is difficult to speak for one minute with computers under pressure about something that they have not talked about before. On the IELTS, on the other hand, students get general and specific questions such as education, sport and business. They said that they can speak and discus with examiners about these questions and it is the best way to measure their abilities in speaking. The second difference between the TOEFL-IBT and the IELTS exams is in the writing section.The biggest difference is in the way that students write. In the TOEFL-IBT, students use computers in the whole exam. Therefore, they should type two essays in sixty minutes. On the IELTS, on the other hand, student s use paper and pencils to write their essays. They must write two different essays in sixty minute by hand. It is obvious that it depends on the students to choose what is easier for them. For example, some students are good writer on the computer. They can type faster than writing by hand. Therefore, they prefer the TOEFL-IBT rather than the IELTS because they can write more word in less time using computers.On the other hand, some students prefer the IELTS because they are very slow writers using computers. It takes them more time to write and look for the letters on the keyboard. As a result, they prefer the IELTS because they used to write by hand and they do not want to waste their time looking for the liters on the keyboard. The third difference is in the listening section. In the TOEFL-IBT, students get questions first. They can read the questions and prepare for what they should listen to, then they listen to the lectures or conversations.On the other hand, the students who take the TOEFL-IBT are not allowed to read any question that they will be asked. Therefore, they listen to the lectures or the conversations and take notes then they get the questions. In fact, many students believe that the TOEFL-IBT is difficult in the Listening Section because they do not know what they will be asked after the lectures. For example, in the TOEFL-IBT, many students get confused while they are listening to the lectures. The lectures normally take six minutes and they cannot take note on everything that the lectures say.On the IELTS, the students hear the lectures while they read questions. They can answer questions directly then they can move to the next question. In the end, many students work hardly to learn English to study in the U. S. many of them have good English abilities but they fail in English as A Second Language exams. Some students choose wrong exams that do not match their skills. They do not know the differences between the TOEFL-IBT and the IELTS. The Writing, Speaking and Listening sections are different between the TOEFL-IBT and the IELTS.